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Swimming

 History of Swimming

Swimming as a sport dates back to the prehistoric period, with its earliest physical evidence being found in Stone Age drawings and paintings found near WadiSura at the “cave of Swimmers”. Clay seals from Egypt showed early swimmers swimming in a front crawl manner (Nauright & Parrish, 2012). This was followed by the incoming of early civilization between 4000 B.C. and 9000 B.C., which involved the Persians, Greeks, and Egyptians extolling cleanliness virtues. Consequently, Plato declared that inability to swimming showed lack of proper education. The establishment of competitive swimming goes back to the militaristic culture when Greeks started building swimming pools; however, swimming was not identified as a competitive sport during the ancient Olympic Games, but was only encouraged as a martial arts competition (Montgomery & Chambers, 2009). In 36 B.C., the Japanese held the first ever competitive swimming race. Further research and studies in swimming by different feudal Japanese clans led to the establishment of swimming as a military art and the formation of the first national swimming organization in Japan in 1603 (Nauright & Parrish, 2012).

Digby, in his early Latin paper, acknowledged the ability of humans to swim forward, backwards, vertically, upside down, on top and beneath water, horizontally, and on the sides (Love, 2013). This created the foundation of different swimming styles. In 78 A.D., swimming was introduced in Britain by the Romans as a sport for the lower classes. Different academic institutions started to include it in their curriculum, providing the award of academic certifications in swimming (Gifford, 2009). In 1896, this sport was made part of the modern Olympics games in Athens. FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation), the world swimming associations, was founded in 1908 and established and synchronized the rules and styles in swimming, leading to its popularity (Love, 2013).

Swimming Competitions

Competitive swimming was started based on the principal of identifying individuals with exemplary swimming skills with regards to speed and abiding to the stipulated swimming rules and guidelines. Competition in swimming is meant to create the least possible resistance so as to achieve the maximum possible speed. It typically involves an athlete going through an intense training cycle, in which the body is overloaded with work. This workload is reduced as the athlete approaches the competition period (Montgomery & Chambers, 2009). This is referred to as “Tapering”, and it is followed by a final stage that is termed as “Shave and Taper”. Swimming at the Olympic Games involves both male and female athletes taking part in 16 events held in a 50-meter swimming pool referred to as the Long Course Pool (Love, 2013). The competition involves 40 individual swimming events within the pool that are officially recognized, but the international Olympic committee only acknowledges 32 of these events.

Open water swimming has also emerged as a significant activity in swimming competitions. This entails the events being swum in a large body of open water such as sea or lake. Events range from 5km, 10 km to 25 km, for both male and female competitors. However, the Olympics schedule only acknowledges the 10 km event for both female and male (Montgomery& Chambers, 2009). This event is typically separated from other competitions and tournaments with the exception of the Olympics tournament and the World Championships. Swimming involves four main swimming styles are freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly. Swimming competition may have only one of these styles with the exception of individual medley events, which have all the four styles (Gifford, 2009). In the individual medley competition, sportsmen swim an equal distance for butterfly, followed by backstroke, then breaststroke, and finish with freestyle. This event referred to as the “IM” and is swum in 200 meters or 400 meters, or yard distances (Nauright & Parrish, 2012). However, in the junior championships, some competitions may involve swimming 100 yard or “IM” meters  such as in club swimming or the over 18 masters swimming (Love, 2013).

 

 

 

Basic Swimming Rules

          Swimming rules and guidelines are devised and synchronized by the world swimming governing body FINA, in conjunction with other swimming governing bodies in respective countries and regions. This is meant to provide an equitable and fare competitive platform for all competing swimmers; hence, promote uniformity during the competitions and the sport in general (University Place Aquatic Club, 2007). Each stroke in swimming has its unique guidelines and rules that are designed so as to ensure that there is no unfair competitive advantage among the swimmers (Montgomery& Chambers, 2009). The technical rules are stipulated and documented in different publications, including the “United States Swimming Rules and Regulations” which is the commonly used universal publication. Other swimming events, such as the individual medley and relay, in which a group of four swimmers may all swim freestyle or each swim the competitive strokes starting with backstroke, breaststroke, followed by butterfly, and finally the freestyle, all abide to these rules in relation to the respective stroke being swum (Love, 2013). 

          Freestyle events permit the sportsmen to swim any of the competitive strokes. The crawl is the most commonly used form of swimming characterized by alternate stroking of arms through the water surface and an up and down alternate flutter kick (Montgomery & Chambers, 2009). During turns and finishing, the swimmer must touch the wall of the pool; hence, most swimmers prefer doing flip turns when turning of finishing. The backstroke involves an alternating movement of both arms together with a back flutter kick; this is done while on the back. During turning, the swimmer rotates to the stomach so that they can flip turn while some part of the body touches the wall (University Place Aquatic Club, 2007).

          In the breaststroke, the swimmer is required to perform simultaneous movement of both arms on a horizontal plane. The hands are projected outwards from the front of the breast region moving in a heart shaped manner and then recovered on the surface of the water or under water. The kicks are released simultaneously for both legs in synchrony with the arms in a circular motion, like the swimming of a frog (Montgomery & Chambers, 2009). On the finish and turn, the swimmer touches the wall simultaneously with two arms. The butterfly stroke features the simultaneous recovering of both arms on the water surface together with a dolphin kick (Love, 2013). During the kick, the swimmer has to ensure both legs are kept together and should not flutter and use a breaststroke kick or scissors. Both hands have to touch the wall on turns and finishing.

          The individual medley features all the four strokes. The swimmer has to start with butterfly, change to backstroke after covering a quarter of the race, followed by breaststroke, and finish with freestyle. During all races, swimmers are not allowed to conduct false start. This may lead to the competitor being disqualified from a race if the starter thinks the swimmer jumped the start to have an advantage over the others (University Place Aquatic Club, 2007). However, in the Olympics, competitors are allowed a maximum of two false starts. Other rules on turns and finishes involve touching the wall with both hands at the same time on breaststroke and butterfly. Consequently, the swimmer should not freestyle kick on the wall, and both arms should move simultaneously (University Place Aquatic Club, 2007).

 

 

Competition Pools, Seasons, and Swimwear

          Swimming events are conducted in special sports swimming pools referred to as long course pools covering a distance of 50 meters, such as those in the Olympic swimming competitions. Short course pools covering 25 yards are also commonly used such as those employed during FINA World Swimming Championships. These pools have starting blocks used for diving and touch sensitive pads that electronically record the time for each swimmer. In the United States, club swimming occurs in two main seasons (University Place Aquatic Club, 2007). The short course season entails swimming in the 25 yards short course pools and lasts from September to march, while the long course season occurs from April to August in the 50 meters pools (Nauright & Parrish, 2012). In addition to the club swimming season, other swimming competitions include the Swimming Games of Small states of Europe, IPC Swimming World Championships, African Swimming Championship, Summer Swimming Olympics, The Youth Olympics, the U.S. Open Swimming, UAAP Swimming Championships, and the Caribbean Island Swimming Championships (Nauright & Parrish, 2012).

          Competitive swimming also involves its specific swim wear that is designed to improve on human skin to avoid resistance; hence, capitalize on speed advantage. Swimsuits are used to cover the skin, and are mainly used for modesty. FINA altered its rules and regulations that resulted to banning of polyurethane suits as they improved the athletes’ buoyance. Swim cap is made of spandex, latex, lycra, or silicone; it covers the hair to reduce drag while goggles cover the eyes to keep off contact with chlorine and water. Other swim wear include swim fins for faster kick, drag suit for increase resistance when pulling back, paddles  for improved arm and shoulder strength, kickboard, pull buoy, snorkel, and zoomers (Nauright& Parrish, 2012). 

 

 

 

Conclusion

          Swimming as a sport has witnessed significant changes as a result of improved training techniques as well as new developments. Competition suits have consequently been improved to embrace the use of engineered swimming fabric and designs that reduce drag and fatigue on the swimmers (Gifford, 2009). Major changes have also been implemented in starting blocks from small, narrow, and straight to inclined, bigger and, wider blocks. Consequently, adjustments have been implemented by FINA on the rules and regulations so as to cater for the changing times in relation to scientific research conducted in swimming (Love, 2013). It is believed that with better studies in this sport, swimming will be greatly improved and developed across the globe.

 

References

Gifford, C. (2009). Swimming. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish.  

Love, C. (2013). A Social History of Swimming in England, 1800 – 1918: Splashing in the Serpentine. New York, NY: Routledge.  

Montgomery, J. & Chambers, M. (2009). Mastering Swimming. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Nauright, J. & Parrish, C. (2012). Sports around the World: History, Culture, and Practice. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.

University Place Aquatic Club. (2007). BASIC SWIMMING RULES. UPACSHARKS. Retrieved from http://www.upacsharks.org/documents/BASICSWIMMINGRULES.pdf

Horse Racing

History of Horse Racing

Just like any other sport, horse racing is a competitive activity; the only difference is that it involves horses racing against each other. This can be for fun, entertainment or a price. Horse racing dates back to as early as the fifth century (Bareback and Chariot events, 2013). It is worth nothing that horse racing was not always a sport for the wealthy. Originally, horses were the primary mode of transport and communication besides walking (or running). Over time, it changed into a form of entertainment and finally, a race. During this time, it was in practice in the ancient Greece, Babylon, Syria, Roman Empire and Egypt, with the incorporation of the chariot and horse racing in the early Greek Olympics competitions by 648 BC. With horses being costly at the time, horse racing was a sport for the wealthy and the royalty, gaining the title of” Sport of Kings” in the British society (Prashanth, 2013).

The history of organized horse race cannot be well established, but scholars believe it to have originated in countries such as Persia, China, Arabia and Middle East countries and North Africa where horsemanship was early adopted. The European racing is believed to have developed between the 11^th and 13^th Century, which was contributed by the coming of the Arabian, Turk and Barb horses. However, up to date, the Persian and Arabian horses receive worldwide acclamation as the best and even fastest horses.

In early England, racing begun when horses met for sale were raced in contest by experienced riders to demonstrate the horses might in terms of speed to the potential buyers. The first horse racing price in the medieval England is alleged to have been forty pounds, this was during the rule of Richard the Lion Heart (1189), a contest run over 4.8km course with the knights as riders. This is because only the knights were very well versed in the art of riding, and as such, they could evaluate the best horses. The King would also choose to buy the best horses for his knights and court.

Types of Races

1.      Match Races

These were the earliest known horse races where two or at most three horses racing against each other. The owners of the horses were required to provide a purse (a simple wage) which would be given to the owner of the winning horse. It was a rule that if an owner withdrew before the race ended, he had to forfeit half of the purse he had provided for the race this later came to be known as the “play or pay” rule. The agreements for the races were recorded by non-partisan third parties who later earned the name of the match book keeper. One of the match book keepers, in new market, England was John Cheny, who began issuing Cheny’s Horse Matches, a compilation of match books at different racing centers. This was until 1773 when James Weather started a Racing Calendar.

2.      Organized Races

First established in England by Charles 11 (reigned 166—85) who later came to be recognized as “father of English turf, involved horses of the age of six. The horses carried 168 pounds and the victor won 6.4km heats. The king launches the King’s Plates competition for which awards were given to the winners.

3.      Open Field Racing

With public demand for more racing in the mid-18^th century in England, resulted to more open events with a bigger number of runners. The rules were based on the sex, place of birth and previous performance of the horses and the talent of the riders. The owners were to be the riders, in this case only gentlemen riders qualified. To ensure a fair ground, the British Parliament passed a law that the horses entering the race had to be legal possessions of the owners. The field was geographically restricted to the township or county.

The riders were as early as from the seventeenth century referred to as Jockeys –if professional in England and thereafter in French racing.

Jockey Clubs and Racing Commissions

In England, the Jockey Club was first founded at New market about 1750. It was responsible for writing racing rules, which made consideration to different kinds of contests involving horses of different ages and thus made more detailed. (Montgomery, 2013)The rules when printed in the Racing Calendar, later served as a model for rules everywhere.

In France, La Societed Encouragement pour Iamelioration des Races de Chevaux en France, established in 1833, administers French racing. In the United States, The North American Jockey Club established in 1894 in New York, used to administer the American horse racing, but later replaced by state commissions in the horse races governance.

Modern Horse Racing

Modern horse racing is not much different from the early horse racing, only a bit of change of things here and there, improvement or rules and regulations and also establishment of new types of horse races. The style, the types and the distances covered by the races vary from country to country. Its initiation is supposed to have been marked by the appointment of the English classic races, which were structured for three years old horses. These races included the St. Leger in 1776, the Oaks in 1779 and the Derby in 1780. Later come the French classics that included the Prix du Jockey Club in 1863 and then the American classics that included Belmont Stakes in 1867 and the Kentucky Derby in 1875.

There are three main types of horse races in modern racing. They are Flat racing, which involves horses running on a level ground, over a scheduled distance which involves horses racing and attach racing step.

Horse racing gained lots of popularity across generations especially due to its financial importance associated with gambling with an estimated market worth of around US $ 15 billion in 2008. Moreover, some have also come to appreciate it as a way of entertaining and for some as a way of just having fun. With all this in mind the horse race participants and audience continue to grow daily as some join for just fun while some just want to make more money.

Dubai

This is a famous city in the United Arab Emirates, and has the largest population among the emirates estimated at around 2.2 million, and has the second largest territory covering approximate, 1114 km squared. With Abu Dhabi, Dubai has the veto power in decisions involving critical matters. Although Dubai’s economy is greatly reliant on oil export, the western approach business model fuels its economy growth with the major revenues generated from tourism, real estate, aviation and financial services (Duncan, 2011). It is considered the most costly city in the contemporary world.

Dubai Horse Racing

Dubai horse racing has been around since the early times this was majorly contributed by the use of horses as means of transport. It is believed that the Arabic states were among the first people to practice organized horse racing. This was believed to be so due to their early horsemanship. Dubai may not have been in the publicity as far as horse racing is concerned, but with the conception of the annual Dubai world cup (considered to be the wealthiest in the world), when it comes to horse racing, Dubai is the place to be.

Dubai World Cup

With a visit to the England town of New market, (well known since the early times for its horse racing events) in 1960s on his first horse race (Borthwick, 2010), the Dubai ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bins Rashid al-Maktoum, was impressed and is now considered has an influential figure in sporting world and specifically horse racing. He is the man behind the Dubai World Cup.

This race is held annually since its beginning in 1996, at the Meydan Racecourse, which is suggested to be a meeting place for competing horses from Arab countries. The horse race is a thoroughbred horse race that is the race is done on a level ground across a common distance. It is managed by Emirates Racing Authority and is regarded the wealthiest horse race, with a purse of US $ ten million since the year 2010.

The race involves Thoroughbred four year olds for Northern Hemisphere and up and for Southern Hemisphere Thoroughbred three years olds and up race over a distance of 2000 meters about 10 furlongs.

References

Bareback and Chariot events. (2013, October 1). Retrieved November 21, 2013, from Equestrian Events: http://www.hellenism.com/olympics/ancientgames/equestrian.htm

Borthwick, M. (2010, March 26). BBC website. Retrieved November 21, 2013, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/business/2009/business_of_sport/8584923.stm

Duncan, G. (2011, November 30). Abu Dhabi and Dubai are the best places to live in the Middle East. The National, p. 1.

Montgomery, S. U. (2013). Horse Racing. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 5.

Prashanth. (2013, October 1). Earliest Record of horse racing. Retrieved November 21, 2013, from Library Index: http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/2186/Animals-in-Sports-ROOTS-ANIMAL-SPORTS.html